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In Ezekiel 1, the prophet experiences an amazing theophany that has inspired and perplexed readers for centuries. Ezekiel was privileged to see the Merkabah, the flying chariot-throne of God, and “upon the likeness of the throne was the likeness as the appearance of a man above upon it” (Ezek 1:26).

In the account that we have of this vision, we read of a whirlwind, fire, living creatures, wheels, a firmament, and other complex images. Attempts to depict what Ezekiel was seeing have been varied and rather amusing. Early Jewish and Christian writers were enamored with Ezekiel’s vision, and much time and effort was dedicated to pondering its mysteries (as can be seen in the Ma’asei Merkavah and the Kabbalah, for example). Looking past the imagery, many scholars have recognized in Ezekiel’s Merkabah the essential elements of Solomon’s Temple, which had been destroyed. If we are to understand what Ezekiel was seeing, we must look to the Temple!

Hebrew University’s Rachel Elior analyzes the similarity between the Merkabah imagery and the Temple setting. The winged cherubim of the Holy of Holies (1 Kgs 6:23–29, 8:6-7; compare Ezek. 1:5–11),  the stands in the Temple court with their copper wheels (I Kings 7:27–30, 33; compare 1:10, 13-16), the four threesomes of creatures facing all four points of the compass, the lions, oxen, cherubim, and ofanim (wheels)-all made of burnished bronze –

-became four sacred winged creatures, sparkling with that same bronze luster, with the faces of lions, oxen, eagles, and human beings. They stood on four wheels (Heb. ofanim) which had the appearance of “two wheels cutting through each other” and faced all four points of the compass (Ezek 1:4–11, 16–21), like their counterparts in the Temple. The gold-plated winged cherubim in the sanctuary, whose wings were extended and “touched each other”, and which stood on their feet, were transformed in Ezekiel’s vision into sacred, sparkling, winged creatures, “each of whose wings touched those of the other” (Ezek 1:9) and whose legs “were fused into a single rigid leg” (Ezek 1:7); their appearance was “like burning coals of fire…” (Ezek 1:13). There is thus a whole system of correlations between the ideal picture of the destroyed earthly Temple and the visionary Temple revealed in heaven (Rachel Elior, The Three Temples, trans. David Louvish; Oxford: The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2004).

Ezekiel saw the principal elements of the First Temple form a mobile unit which was not fixed in an earthly Temple but was a heavenly reality that could travel wherever God pleased. In essence, however, this is the vision of Isaiah (Isa 6)–Yahweh seated upon the cherub-throne in the Holy of Holies. Ezekiel was visited by this chariot-throne while in exile in Babylon, and then saw it return to the Temple in Jerusalem. In a time when the people had lost their city and their Temple but hoped to return and rebuild it again, Ezekiel’s visions gave them the assurance that God could and would be with them at all times and in all places.

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If you haven’t yet seen it, my notes from Margaret Barker’s recent lecture at the Temple Studies Symposium last week has some good stuff on Ezekiel and his vision of Eden (chapter 28, also skipped by this SS lesson) and how it relates to Adam and the temple. You can see my notes here.

Also on this topic, see also the following series of videos from Professor William Hamblin’s presentation at the SANE conference at BYU in November 2008.

What is the Chariot in Ezekiel 1, Part 1

Part 2

Part 3

Isaiah Chapter 4

Due to all the tragedy and war that would come upon the people of Judah, as described in Chapter 3, we see in Chapter 4 a situation that appears to result from the loss of many men (husbands or potential husbands).

And in that day seven women shall take hold of one man, saying, We will eat our own bread, and wear our own apparel: only let us be called by thy name, to take away our reproach.

This seems to indicate that the women that are left at home after the war, finding they were without a husband, were willing to enter into polygamous marriage arrangements so that they could avoid the shame of being unmarried.  In ancient cultures, being unmarried and childless was looked down on.  Even if the marriage were in name only, this was preferable to them than remaining unmarried.

In verse 2, we read of “the branch of the Lord.” What does this “beautiful and glorious” branch refer to?  Anciently, the Davidic kings seem to have been referred to by this title.  The Davidic king was seen as representing the Tree of Life, or a branch of that tree.  The kings of Israel were types of the Messiah, so scriptures mentioning “the Branch” are often seen as prophecies of the coming Christ (cf. Jer. 23:5).  However, this verse seems to be referring not to a single person, but to a group of people — those who have managed to “escape” the tribulations and remain in the land of Zion. They are a righteous and “holy” branch of the House of Israel (cf. 2 Ne. 3:5; Jacob 2:25).

In verse 4 we see that the Lord will have purified the land of Jerusalem with washing and with burning.

At that time there will be fulfilled an amazing promise that every home and meeting-place on “mount Zion” will be blessed by the same divine defense that the camp of Israel enjoyed during the Exodus — a cloud/smoke by day, and a pillar of fire by night.  These divine manifestations are indicative of the presence of the Lord.  God will personally be with his people to defend them, as He was with the Israelites as the fled from Egypt.  Zion (and specifically the temple) will be a place of refuge from the elements (Isa. 4:6).

Chapter 5

This chapter begins with a metaphor that describes the people of Judah as a prized vine within a vineyard.  This is, of course, reminiscent of the well-known parable of the olive trees in the Book of Mormon (Jacob 5), but not as detailed or covering as extensive a history as Jacob’s.  In Isaiah 5, we see the Lord working hard in his vineyard, but to no avail. The plant is unresponsive to his care and brings forth only wild fruit.  In the end, the Lord sees that he must “lay it waste” (Isa. 5:6).

Isaiah goes on to describe the nature of the destruction that will, in reality, befall Judah.  The language used here is similar to that of chapter 2 and focuses on the demise of the proud and rich.  And things get pretty bad for them:

Therefore hell hath enlarged herself, and opened her mouth without measure: and their glory, and their multitude, and their pomp, and he that rejoiceth, shall descend into it (Isaiah 5:14).

In especial danger are those who attempt to subvert the right by calling it wrong, and vice versa:

Isaiah 5:20–24 Woe unto them that call evil good, and good evil; that put darkness for light, and light for darkness; that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter! 21 Woe unto them that are wise in their own eyes, and prudent in their own sight! 22 Woe unto them that are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength to mingle strong drink: 23 Which justify the wicked for reward, and take away the righteousness of the righteous from him! 24 Therefore as the fire devoureth the stubble, and the flame consumeth the chaff, so their root shall be as rottenness, and their blossom shall go up as dust: because they have cast away the law of the LORD of hosts, and despised the word of the Holy One of Israel.

I’m sure I don’t even need to mention how much of a problem this is in today’s world!

Verse 25 continues to describe the terrible destruction that will come upon the wicked. The end of the verse, however, makes it clear that despite all this, the Lord’s “hand is stretched out still” to extend mercy to those willing to receive it. That leads us to the next verse, where the form that this outreach of mercy will take is declared:

Isaiah 5:26 And he will lift up an ensign to the nations from far, and will hiss unto them from the end of the earth:

An ensign is a distinguishable flag or banner that allows others to recognize a ship, fort, army, etc. — to know what side they’re on.  In this scripture, the Lord would raise an ensign that the House of Israel would recognize and gather to. The chapter goes on to describe the incredible way in which Israel would respond and swiftly assemble around this center.  Many interpret these descriptive details to be referring to modern modes of transport, like trains and planes, but using the best expressions he could from what was familiar to him in his day.

Isaiah 5:27–29 None shall be weary nor stumble among them; none shall slumber nor sleep; neither shall the girdle of their loins be loosed, nor the latchet of their shoes be broken: 28 Whose arrows are sharp, and all their bows bent, their horses’ hoofs shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a whirlwind: 29 Their roaring shall be like a lion, they shall roar like young lions: yea, they shall roar, and lay hold of the prey, and shall carry it away safe, and none shall deliver it.

The key point here is that once the “ensign to the nations” is lifted, Israel will gather very quickly to it.

Chapter 6

The following is likely going to be more info than most would have time to read, but I wanted to post here parts of an essay I wrote a few years ago entitled: “The Everlasting Path of the Heavenly Throne: Recurrences of the Throne Type-Scene from Isaiah 6 to the Ascension of Isaiah.” I won’t post the whole thing, as that would be incredibly tedious to read, but I post the first few pages that deal more specifically with this chapter from Isaiah.

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The sixth chapter of Isaiah presents the reader with the unabashed claim of the renowned prophet to have seen “the Lord sitting on a throne, high and lofty,” which led directly to Isaiah’s prophetic call.  Surprisingly, this singular event is not unique in religious literature but is only one example of a type-scene[1] that is representative of an ancient tradition of throne theophanies.  Isaiah is one participant in this rich tradition, both inheriting imagery from the distant past and providing inspiration for centuries to come.  It is important for to note that this type of vision is implicitly linked with the theology of the Monarchy and the First Temple period, in that it employs the imagery of Solomon’s great temple, especially the scenery of the Holy of Holies. The affinity of generations of Jews for this type of visionary account, as well as its popularity among the early Christians, can possibly serve as evidence that the temple theology of the monarchical period, and its vision of an enthroned God in the Sanctuary, managed to survive the destruction of both the First and Second Temples.

Seeing God on his Throne in Isaiah 6

In the very first verse of the sixth chapter of Isaiah, following a brief remark regarding the historical setting, we are presented with the prophet’s unmediated vision of the Deity sitting upon an elevated throne.  While Isaiah gives no direct description of the anthropomorphic figure on the throne, we are told that the “hem of his robe filled the temple” (Isa 6:1, NRSV).[2] There are discrepancies in the biblical text as it has come down to us as to whether or not human beings can actually see God.[3] In Exodus 33:11, we are told that God spoke with Moses face-to-face; however, within the very same chapter (33:20), God informs Moses that no man can see his face and live.  Consequently, Moses is only allowed to see Yahweh’s “back parts.” Certainly, Isaiah is distressed over what he is beholding, declaring in verse five, “Woe is me! I am lost…,” apparently fearing for his life because of his unworthiness to see God.  “Yet,” he confirms, “my eyes have seen the King, the LORD of hosts!”

Although there is greater emphasis on auditory encounters with God, the Old Testament gives numerous accounts of visual theophanies, before and after the time of Isaiah.[4] Despite later polemics against this possibility, there are a number of accounts that make specific mention of seeing God face to face (Gen 32:30; Exod 33:11; Deut 5:4; 34:10; Judg 6:22).  Taking the recurrence of this idea into account, Collins comments that this “suggests that there was a prophetic tradition that prophets could indeed see God.”[5]

It is interesting to note, however, that although the prophets saw God, they did not often describe his appearance in detail.  Besides the use of a few anthropomorphisms, the prophets usually avoided describing the divine form, preferring to elaborate on his clothing, surroundings, voice, attendants, throne, or other particulars.  It cannot be known why this is the case, but we can speculate that perhaps they could not see God clearly or directly, were forbidden to describe his person, or simply could not find words worthy of the spectacle.  It is possible that the smoke mentioned in Isaiah 6, verse four (reminiscent of the smoke of incense used in temple ritual), served to obscure a direct view of the brilliant glory of God.

Whether this is the case or not, Isaiah is able to describe the Lord’s surroundings in greater detail.  Verse two describes the mysterious seraphim surrounding the Lord, each of whom had six wings.  Beyond the description of their wings, however, we don’t get a very clear picture of their exact nature.  The translation of the Hebrew seraphim seems to signify “burning ones,” but we are not told if these figures are human-like or if they appear to be more like animals.  Karen Randolph Joines, in her article entitled “Winged Serpents in Isaiah’s Inaugural Vision,” explains that the word seraph appears seven times in the OT and designates a kind of serpent (recall the episode with Moses and the Bronze Serpent)—it is only in Isaiah 6 that the word is plural and refers to the creatures attending Yahweh.[6] Although there is sound evidence for the importance of “winged serpents” as attendants of deity in the region, especially in Egypt, the idea is not emphasized in our Old Testament, nor in subsequent Jewish literature.[7] By the early Christian era, the figures of the seraphim and the cherubim were often confused or coalesced, as the latter are also mentioned as being present in the Holy of Holies.[8] In any case, the seraphim contribute a liturgical element to the vision, and are seen praising the Lord with the call of the Trisagion, “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts!” Their praise was so powerful that the whole house shook.

The seraphs are part of the hosts inherent in the name Yahweh Sabaoth, the “Lord of Hosts.” Yahweh is frequently depicted as being surrounded by numerous heavenly beings which make up the Hosts of Heaven or the Heavenly Council.  This assembly is made up of myriads of divine/angelic beings that praise God and/or participate in his council.[9] Of particular note are 1 Kgs 22:19–23, where the prophet sees Yahweh sitting on his throne with “all the host of heaven standing by him on his right and on his left”; Job 1-2 (KJV), where Satan comes among the “sons of God”[10] and presents himself before the Lord; Psalm 82 depicts God taking his place in the divine council and judging the gods; Zech 3 finds Joshua the High Priest before the Lord of Hosts together with the Angel and Satan; and in Daniel 7 we see a judgment scene with the Ancient One enthroned, the One like a Son of Man arriving, and ten thousand times ten thousand in attendance.[11] It appears that the throne theophany and the heavenly hosts were frequently connected.

Although Isaiah does not enter into explicit detail regarding the throne of God, it is one of the central images of the vision.  One of the only details we read about the person of God is that he is seated on a throne.  The divine throne is the focus of many previous and subsequent theophanies. The throne theme, together with the other scenery that Isaiah describes, indicates to us that he is seeing this vision in the Temple.  In Isaiah’s time, the Lord was believed to actually be present in the Temple in Jerusalem, seated upon his throne.  The Temple was built as the House of the Lord, to be a place where he could dwell among his people.  In Isa 8:18 (cf. Ps 9:11), we read that Yahweh dwells in Zion (see also Pss 24:9-10; 46; 50:2; 1 Kgs 8:13; Isa 2:3; Hab 2:20).  But didn’t God dwell in Heaven? How could he dwell both in Heaven and in an earthly temple? This did not seem to be an issue for the Israelites.  In Ps 11:4, we are told that “The LORD is in his holy temple; the LORD’s throne is in heaven.” According to Mettinger, the theology of the monarchical period saw in “the Temple the meeting place between heaven and earth; the Temple is the spot at which spatial dimensions are transcended.”[12] Isaiah could have a vision of the Lord who rules in Heaven while being physically planted in the temple on Earth.

The vision recorded in Isaiah 6 is an outstanding example of the type of vision that prophets were believed to have when they received their prophet call.  For the Davidic kings, who were seen as representatives of God on the earth, and are even remembered as sitting upon God’s throne (see 1 Chron 29:23; cf. Ps 61:6–7; 2 Sam 7:12–14),[13] the symbol of God as King was very important.  The throne theophany type-scene, which Isaiah 6 represents, was highly celebrated and, as we will see, would continue to inspire religious writers for centuries.

History of the Throne Theophany Type-scene

As we have mentioned, the vision in Isaiah 6 was not the first of its kind.  It is but one example of a type of theophany that had roots in the distant past of that region’s religious imagery.  A suggested date for Isaiah’s vision is 742 B.C.E., when it was recorded in the time of Isaiah himself (as part of his memoir) at an early point in his career.[14]

An earlier instance of this type of theophany can be seen in the vision of the prophet Micaiah ben Imlah (1 Kgs 22), which is dated to the ninth century B.C.   Micaiah’s vision is remarkably similar to Isaiah’s in form.  Micaiah recounts his vision, declaring: “I saw the Lord sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing by him on his right hand and on his left” (1 Kgs. 22:19, KJV).  In both visions, God is looking for someone he can send to perform a special mission.  In Micaiah’s vision, a spirit comes before the Lord to volunteer, whereas in Isaiah it is the prophet himself.  The similarity of the two visions indicates that both are based on a standard literary form or pattern for throne-theophanies followed by a prophetic call.

According to Weinfeld, the idea of the worship of an anthropomorphic God seated on a throne is ancient.  In the early background of this type of vision is the theology of the First Temple, in which “the Divinity is personalized and depicted in the most tangible corporeal similitudes. God, who possesses, as it were, a human form, has need of a house or a tabernacle. Within the inner recesses of the tabernacle, removed and veiled from the human eye, sits the Deity ensconced between the two cherubim, and at his feet rests the ark, his footstool.”[15] It is likely that this type of imagery extends back before the construction of the First Temple to the sanctuaries that Israel used before the Monarchy.

[2] All biblical quotations are cited from the New Oxford Annotated Bible NRSV, unless otherwise indicated.

[3] John J. Collins, Isaiah (Collegeville Bible Commentary; Old Testament 13; Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1986), 26.  A different perspective on the issue of seeing God’s face is Andrei Orlov, “God’s Face in the Enochic Tradition,” in Paradise Now (ed. A.D. DeConick; Boston: Brill, 2006).

[4] Savran, Encountering the Divine, 49 ff. 1 gives the following as appearances of God in the Old Testament: Gen 12:7; 17:1; 18:1; 26:2,24; 35:1,9; 46:29; 48:3; Exod 3:2; 6:3; 16:10; Lev 9:23; Num 14:10; 16:19; 17:7; 20:6; Judg 6:12; 13:3; 1 Sam 1:22; 3:21; 1 Kgs 9:2; 2 Chron 1:7; 3:1; 7:12.  See also: Exod 19:21; 20:18-21; 24:9-11; Judg 13:22; 1 Kgs 11:9; Job 19:26; 42.5; Ezek 1:26; Amos 9:1.

[5] Collins, Isaiah, 26.

[6] Karen Randolph Joines, “Winged Serpents in Isaiah’s Inaugural Vision,” JBL 87, 3 (1968) 410.

[7] A notable exception is found in 1 Enoch 20:7, where we read: “Gabriel, one of the holy angels, who is in charge of paradise and the serpents and the cherubim.”

[8] Darrell D. Hannah, “Isaiah’s Vision in the Ascension of Isaiah and the Early Church,” JTS 50 (Apr 1999) 82.  Justin Martyr and Irenaeus understood the Lord to be seated upon both cherubim and seraphim.

[9] References to this assembly can be seen throughout the OT: Exod 15:1; Deut 32:8–9; Jer 23:18,22; Job 15:8; 38:7; Isa 14:13; Ps 25:14, and elsewhere.  Min Suc Kee, “The Heavenly Council and its Type-scene,” JSOT 31.3 (2007) gives a full discussion.

[10] NRSV has “heavenly beings” for b’nei ha-elohim.

[11] Kee, “The Heavenly Council and its Type-scene,” 262-263.

[12] Mettinger, Dethronement, 29.

[13] Timo Eskola, Messiah and the Throne, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2, 142 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001), 62-63.

[14] Collins, Isaiah, 25.

[15] Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 191.

Michelangelo’s Depiction of Moses on a Throne

The following post represents research I did for Dr. Orlov’s Apocalyptic Literature class in preparation for a presentation I did on themes from the text of an ancient drama known as Exagoge, written by Ezekiel the Tragedian. This text is only known by fragments of the original recorded by the Christian historian Eusebius. The original play is thought to have been written in the second century BC and is, thus, the oldest piece of Jewish drama available.

The focus of my presentation was on the depiction, in Exagoge, of an anthropomorphic (human-like) figure sitting on a throne, whom Moses describes as having seen as part of a heavenly ascent vision he had while on Mt. Sinai. Incredibly, the “noble man” on the throne leaves the throne, gives his kingly regalia to Moses and sets Moses on the throne in his place. This is truly and extraordinary text that has puzzled scholars for decades.  Here is the pertinent part of the text:

68 I [Moses] had a vision on the top of Sinai of a high throne
69 that reached the fold of heaven.
70 On it was sitting a certain noble man,
71 with a crown and with a large scepter in his
72 left hand, while with the right
73 he beckoned me, and I stood before the throne.
74 He handed me the scepter and told me
75 to sit on the great throne, and gave me the royal
76 crown, and he departed from the throne.
77 I beheld the whole earth around
78 and the things underneath the earth and those above the heaven.
79 Then a multitude of stars fell on their knees before me,
80 and I counted them all,
81 and they paraded by me as in a march of mortals.

There are some important issues here that I would like to briefly address: the Jewish belief in an anthropomorphic figure on the throne of God and the possible identity of the figure (the “noble man”); and also the idea that a human being (e.g., Moses) could actually be enthroned in heaven in such a manner.

The Figure on the Throne in the Hebrew Bible

The idea that there is a divine, human-like figure seated on the throne of God comes up repeatedly in the Hebrew Bible. The following are just a few of the main passages that illustrate this widespread early belief (most of these translations are from the RSV–which is the standard Bible translation used in most of my classes):

Ezekiel 1:26 And above the firmament over their heads there was the likeness of a throne, in appearance like sapphire; and seated above the likeness of a throne was a likeness as it were of a human form.

Isaiah 6:1 In the year that King Uzziah died I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and lifted up; and his train filled the temple. 2 Above him stood the seraphim;

1 Kings 22:19 And Micaiah said, “Therefore hear the word of the LORD: I saw the LORD sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing beside him on his right hand and on his left;

Daniel 7:9–10, 13 9 As I looked, thrones were placed and one that was ancient of days took his seat; his raiment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like pure wool; his throne was fiery flames, its wheels were burning fire. 10 A stream of fire issued and came forth from before him; a thousand thousands served him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him; the court sat in judgment, and the books were opened. 13 I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him.

1 Samuel 4:4 4 So the people sent to Shiloh, and brought from there the ark of the covenant of the LORD of hosts, who is enthroned on the cherubim; and the two sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, were there with the ark of the covenant of God.

Exodus 24:10–11 10 and they saw the God of Israel; and there was under his feet as it were a pavement of sapphire stone, like the very heaven for clearness. 11 And he did not lay his hand on the chief men of the people of Israel; they beheld God, and ate and drank.

Psalm 29:10 The LORD sits enthroned over the flood; the LORD sits enthroned as king for ever.

Rafael's Depiction of Ezekiel's Vision

The most influential of these for Exagoge is likely Ezek, which describes the entity on the merkabah throne as “something that seemed like a human form” (Ezek 1:26). It then goes on to describe this anthropomorphic being in some detail, including describing his luminosity, as if he were covered in fire. Similarly, Isa 6 portrays God as seated on the “high and lofty” cherubim throne in the temple, paying particular attention to his glorious apparel. Dan 7 depicts an anthropomorphic figure sitting on a throne (described similarly to Ezekiel’s vision), while adding that both his garment and his hair were exceedingly white. 

God El limestone statue from Ugarit, c. 1300 bc.

Ancient Near Eastern Background

The idea that Yahweh was a human-like figure seated on a glorious throne and dressed in majestic clothing is comparable to similar notions of deity among Israel’s ancient Near Eastern neighbors.
In the Ugaritic texts, the supreme god El (or Ilu) resides on the sacred mountain as king, and is portrayed as an old gray-haired, enthroned god. In art he is portrayed as an old male figure, sitting on a throne, wearing a crown, blessing with one hand and with the other holding a scepter. The God El is recognizable in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Gen 33:20).
The Canaanite god Baal is made king in place of El, and is enthroned on an enormous and majestic throne (KTU 1.101) on Mount Saphon. Mesopotamian gods, such as Shamash and Marduk, as well as Egyptian gods, are described in like manner. They are human-like figures sitting on thrones. The Israelite conception of El and Yahweh is not different from these features found throughout the region. 

Because this idea is so blatant in the Ugaritic/Mesopotamian/Egyptian texts, I include just a couple of random examples:

“Puissant Baal is dead;
The Prince, Lord of the Earth, is perished.”
Straightway Kindly El Benign
Descends from the throne,
Sits on the footstool;
From the footstool
And sits on the ground;
Pours dust of mourning on his head,
Earth of mortification on his pate;
And puts on sackcloth and loincloth (g. I AB vi. 9-18 in ANET, 139).

Baal sits like the base of a mountain;
Hadd se[ttles] as the ocean,
In the midst of his divine mountain, Saphon,
In [the midst of] the mountain of victory.
Seven lightening-flashes [ ]
Eight bundles of thunder,
A tree-of-lightening [in his] right hand.
His head is magnificent,
His brow is dew-drenched,
His feet are eloquent in his wrath… (KTU 1.101)

NJB Genesis 33:20 There he [Jacob] erected an altar which he called ‘El, God of Israel’ (this passage is included to illustrate the point that the worship of El was practiced in primordial Israelite religion).

Near Eastern King (Ahiram) on Cherubim Throne

Yahweh on the Throne in the First Temple

Going back to Israel, in the pre-exilic period of the Israelite monarchy, Yahweh was believed to dwell, enthroned, in the Holy of Holies of the Jerusalem temple, the earthly counterpart of the heavenly temple (Isa 6; 1 Kgs 6, 8; 1 Sam 4:4; 1 Kgs 8:12–13; Exod 15:17; 2 Sam 7:1–6; Pss 9:11; 11:4; 26:8; 43:3; 46:5; 48:9; 50:2; 76:3; 84:1; 132:13-14).
Those who made pilgrimage to the temple in Jerusalem expected to see the Lord seated on the throne (Exo 23:15, 17; 34:20-24; Deut 16:16; 31:11; 1 Sam 1:22; Isa 1:12; Ps 42:2).
The important question is how, or in what form, did believers expect to see Yahweh? Some scholars have suggested that there was a golden statue sitting on the cherubim throne in the Holy of Holies.
However, there is also evidence that the human-like figure seen on the throne was the Davidic king himself, who sat on the divine throne for special religious ceremonies, in which he acted as a physical representation of Yahweh. 1 Chron 29:20, 23 says clearly it was the king who sat on the throne of the LORD and was worshipped. Also, the psalms contain many references to someone sitting under the wings of the Lord, a possible reference to a human sitting on the cherubim throne (e.g., Pss 17, 36, 57, 63, 91, etc.).

Some of the pertinent passages regarding the presence of the LORD in the Jerusalem Temple:

Exodus 15:17 17 Thou wilt bring them in, and plant them on thy own mountain, the place, O LORD, which thou hast made for thy abode, the sanctuary, LORD, which thy hands have established.

2 Samuel 7:4–7 4 But that same night the word of the LORD came to Nathan, 5 “Go and tell my servant David, `Thus says the LORD: Would you build me a house to dwell in? 6 I have not dwelt in a house since the day I brought up the people of Israel from Egypt to this day, but I have been moving about in a tent for my dwelling.

1 Kings 6:11–14 11 Now the word of the LORD came to Solomon, 12 “Concerning this house which you are building, if you will walk in my statutes and obey my ordinances and keep all my commandments and walk in them, then I will establish my word with you, which I spoke to David your father. 13 And I will dwell among the children of Israel, and will not forsake my people Israel.” 14 So Solomon built the house, and finished it.

1 Kings 8:12–13 12 Then Solomon said, “The LORD has set the sun in the heavens, but has said that he would dwell in thick darkness. 13 I have built thee an exalted house, a place for thee to dwell in for ever.”

2 Kings 19:14–15 14 Hezekiah received the letter from the hand of the messengers, and read it; and Hezekiah went up to the house of the LORD, and spread it before the LORD. 15 And Hezekiah prayed before the LORD, and said: “O LORD the God of Israel, who art enthroned above the cherubim, thou art the God, thou alone, of all the kingdoms of the earth; thou hast made heaven and earth.

Psalm 26:8 O LORD, I love the habitation of thy house, and the place where thy glory dwells.

Psalm 43:3 3 Oh send out thy light and thy truth; let them lead me, let them bring me to thy holy hill and to thy dwelling!

Psalm 76:2 His abode has been established in Salem, his dwelling place in Zion.

Psalm 132:13–14 13 For the LORD has chosen Zion; he has desired it for his habitation: 14 “This is my resting place for ever; here I will dwell, for I have desired it.

Psalm 99:1–2 The LORD reigns; let the peoples tremble! He sits enthroned upon the cherubim; let the earth quake! 2 The LORD is great in Zion; he is exalted over all the peoples.

Depiction of Yahweh on the Throne

Deuteronomy 16:16 Three times a year all your males shall see the face of the LORD your God at the place which he will choose: at the feast of unleavened bread, at the feast of weeks, and at the feast of booths. They shall not see the face of the LORD vainly (unworthily);
(reading the Hebrew yr’h in the original Qal form instead of the Niphal)

Exilic and Post-Exilic Conceptions

With the reforms of King Josiah and destruction of the temple at the hands of the Babylonians, the idea that Yahweh dwelt in his temple was supressed. In the exilic text of Ezekiel, however, we see that the divine kavod, including the merkabah throne, was able to travel outside the temple. Although the temple was no more, Ezekiel’s description of the human-like figure on the throne remains true to pre-exilic beliefs.
The post-exilic literature of the Zadokite priests follows Ezekiel in describing Yahweh as present with his people, although he is usually depicted as enveloped in fire and/or cloud.

Second Temple Literature

There is a proliferation in the Second Temple period of writings regarding the divine kavod that Ezekiel saw. It has often been proposed that the figure on the throne is Yahweh himself. However, in this period there is widespread speculation regarding the identity of the kavod in relation to proposed mediatorial figures. The specifically human-like figure became connected to speculation about mortals exalted to the heavenly throne (or perhaps the two ideas were always connected). A number of such figures arise in the literature that are depicted as the anthropomorphic entity on the throne (Enoch, Jacob, Moses). It is likely that these traditions draw upon the early idea of Adam as the Image of God (for more on the exalted position of Adam, please see my last post).

A. Gottstein noted, ”Adam is distinguished from God not by form, but by the different quality of life attached to the same form; in other words, God and Adam are distinguished not by body, but by bodily function (see Bunta, 179).

In monarchic Israel, both high priest and king were identified with Adam. Some scholars theorize that the presence on the cherub throne was also equated with Adam, who was the image/icon/idol of the undepictable kavod. Throughout the literature, Adam (pre-lapsarian) is depicted as the luminous image of the Godhead, often wearing brilliant garments of light. Later priests and kings would imitate this garment of light, which also represented the shining robes of God. Thus, Adam was the visible representative of the divine glory, and later humans (prophets, priests, kings) were engaged in a constant effort to regain the luminous glory of Adam. In Exagoge, it is possible that we are seeing an example of Moses taking the place of Adam as the anthropomorphic figure seated on the divine throne.

Another possibility is that Moses is simply taking the place of his own heavenly self–his heavenly counterpart, or twin.  There is a good deal of ancient literature that presents the idea that when a visionary ascends to heaven, he is sometimes presented with an angelic being, whom he is told is a heavenly version of himself. Sometimes the “twin” is seated on a throne and the visionary often either “becomes” the person on the throne or takes the person’s place.  For more on this idea, see Kerry Shirts’ great set of YouTube videos on the topic here. 

Of course, the figure on the throne could be Yahweh himself.  However, the idea that God would leave the throne and turn it over to Moses is hard for most scholars to swallow. While examples of God sharing the throne are abundant, as is the idea of God setting up thrones for others to rule under him, the idea that God would leave His own throne for a mortal is unprecedented.  However, since the text is so obscure and it is hard to trace its history, we can really only speculate where Ezekiel the Tragedian came up with this idea and what he meant by it.

In any case, I provide here some relevant passages that help give background to this theme:

Solomon on the Throne

1 Chronicles 29:20, 23 Then David said to all the assembly, “Bless the LORD your God.” And all the assembly blessed the LORD, the God of their fathers, and bowed their heads, and worshiped the LORD and the king. 23 Then Solomon sat on the throne of the LORD as king instead of David his father; and he prospered, and all Israel obeyed him.

Adam on the Throne –Testament of Abraham

XI. So Michael turned the chariot and brought Abraham to the east, to the first gate of heaven; and Abraham saw two ways, the one narrow and contracted, the other broad and spacious, and there he saw two gates, the one broad on the broad way, and the other narrow on the narrow way. And outside the two gates there he saw a man sitting upon a golden throne, and the appearance of that man was terrible, as of the Lord…And Abraham asked the chief-captain, My Lord chief-captain, who is this most marvelous man, adorned with such glory, and sometimes he weeps and laments, and sometimes he rejoices and exults? The incorporeal one said: This is the first-created Adam who is in such glory, and he looks upon the world because all are born from him…

Enoch on the Throne

1 Enoch 69:29 And from henceforth there shall be nothing corruptible;
For that Son of Man has appeared,
And has seated himself on the throne of his glory,
And all evil shall pass away before his face,
And the word of that Son of Man shall go forth…
(1 Enoch 71 seems to indicate that this Son of Man is Enoch himself)

2 Enoch 22:8 And the Lord said to Michael: Go and take Enoch from out (of) his earthly garments, and anoint him with my sweet ointment, and put him into the garments of My glory. 9 And Michael did thus, as the Lord told him. He anointed me, and dressed me, and the appearance of that ointment is more than the great light, and his ointment is like sweet dew, and its smell mild, shining like the sun’s ray, and I looked at myself, and (I) was like one of his glorious ones. 24:1 And the Lord summoned me, and said to me: Enoch, sit down on my left with Gabriel.

3 Enoch 10:1 All these things the Holy One, blessed be He, made for me: He made me a Throne, similar to the Throne of Glory; And He spread over me a curtain of splendor and brilliant appearance, of beauty, grace, and mercy, similar to the curtain of the Throne of Glory; and on it were fixed all kinds of lights in the universe. 2 And He placed it at the door to the Seventh Hall and He seated me on it.

Jacob on the Throne
In Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Gen 28:12 the following story of Jacob can be found:

He had a dream, and behold, a ladder was fixed in the earth with its top reaching toward the heavens … and on that day they (angels) ascended to the heavens on high, and said, Come and see Jacob the pious, whose image is fixed (engraved) in the Throne of Glory, and whom you have desired to see…

A. Orlov explains that there are further implications possible in this imagery:

Besides the tradition of “engraving” on the Throne, some Jewish materials point to an even more radical identification of Jacob’s image with Kavod. Jarl Fossum’s research demonstrates that in some traditions about Jacob’s image, his “image” or “likeness” is depicted not simply as engraved on the heavenly throne, but as seated upon the throne of glory. J. Fossum argues that this second tradition is original. Christopher Rowland proposed that Jacob’s image is “identical with the form of God on the throne of glory (Ezek. 1.26f.)” (From Apocalypticism to Merkabah Mysticism: Studies in the Slavonic Pseudepigrapha (Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism, 114; Leiden: Brill, 2007), 408).

Selected Bibliography

Barker, Margaret. Temple Themes in Christian Worship. London: T&T Clark, 2007.

Bunta, Silviu. Moses, Adam and the Glory of the Lord in Ezekiel the Tragedian: Roots
     of a Merkabah Text. Dissertation. Milwaukee: Marquette University, 2005.

Cross, F.M. Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
     Press, 1973.

Holladay, Carl R. “The Portrait of Moses in Ezekiel the Tragedian.” Society of Biblical
     Literature Seminar Papers 1976. Chico, Cal.: Scholars Press, 1976, 447-52.

Jacobsen, Howard. The Exagoge of Ezekiel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
     1983.

Meeks. The Prophet-King: Moses Traditions and the Johannine Christology. Leiden:
     Brill, 1967.

Niehr, Herbert. “In Search of YHWH’s Cult Statue in the First Temple,” in K. van der Toorn, ed. The Image and the Book: Iconic Cults, Aniconism, and    the Rise of Book Religion in Israel and the Ancient Near East. Leuven: Peters, 1997, 73-96.

Oppenheim, A. Leo. “The Golden Garments of the Gods.” JNES 8 (1949): 172-193.

Orlov, Andrei. “In the Mirror of the Divine Face: The Enochic Features of the Exagoge of Ezekiel the Tragedian.” The Giving of the Torah at Mt. Sinai. eds. G. Brooks, H. Najman, L. Stuckenbruck; Themes in Biblical Narrative; Leiden: Brill, 2008, 183-199.

_______. “Moses’ Heavenly Counterpart in the Book of Jubilees and the Exagoge of Ezekiel the Tragedian.” Biblica 88 (2007): 153-173.

_______. “Vested with Adam’s Glory: Moses as the Luminous Counterpart of Adam in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Macarian Homilies.” Xristianskij Vostok 4.10 (2002).

Robertson, R. G. “Ezekiel the Tragedian,” in Charlesworth, James H., ed. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Vol. 2. Garden City, N.Y.:Doubleday, 1985, 803-819.

Van der Horst, Pieter. “Moses’ Throne Vision in Ezekiel the Dramatist,” JJS 34 (1983): 21-29

________. “Some Notes on the Exagoge of Ezekiel.” Mnemosyne 37 (1984): 354-75.

One of my main intentions when I decided to commence this blog was to share some of the great materials I have come in contact with as I have studied at Marquette University. I have had many great professors in the year I have been at MU.  One of the professors that I find I have most in common with, to the point that I chose him as my academic advisor, is Dr. Andrei A. Orlov.  I spoke of him previously and posted links to some of his groundbreaking research on 2 Enoch here.

Although well known for his work on Enoch, Dr. Orlov has published well over 30 articles (see www.andreiorlov.com) , many of which are on topics other than the Enoch tradition. Today I wanted to look at a few ideas from an article that he wrote on the Jacob tradition, entitled “The Face as the Heavenly Counterpart of the Visionary,” published most recently as part of his book From Apocalypticism to Merkabah Mysticism: Studies in the Slavonic Pseudepigrapha (Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism, 114; Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. xii+481. $207.00. ISBN 90-04-15439-6.

The Ladder of Jacob

In this article, Dr. Orlov discusses the significance of themes found in a Slavonic pseudepigraphal text known as the Ladder of Jacob. Although its origins are obscure, this text was possibly written in the second century AD by Christians, and was based on Jewish traditions. It has many similarities to the Apocalypse of Abraham, the Odes of Solomon, the Gospel of Thomas, and other similar texts.

In Ladder of Jacob, we see a continuation/expansion of Jacob’s dream in Gen 28, where he sees a ladder connecting earth and heaven and sees angels ascending and descending on it and at the top of the ladder is the Lord.  In this text, Jacob seeks further explanation of this dream from the Lord by approaching him in prayer. An angel named Sariel is sent to give Jacob further details about his vision.

The Face as God’s Kavod

Although I won’t spend much time on this topic in this post, Orlov goes into great detail about how the Ladder of Jacob dwells significantly on the subject of the Face of God.  As Jacob ascends and reaches the top of the celestial ladder, he beholds a human face “carved out of fire” that was “exceedingly terrifying” (see p. 402, or p. 4 here).  This face is accompanied by shoulders and arms, a unit which Orlov calls “the fiery anthropomorphic extent, which serves as the embodiment of the deity…” (p. 402).  This Face, explains Orlov, should be understood to be
“related to the glorious celestial entity known in theophanic traditions as God’s Kavod” (p. 403). For a biblical example of this connection, see Exod 33:18-23, where Moses asks to see God’s Glory (kavod) and God responds by saying that Moses would not see his Face. Orlov reasons that when the visionary describes “the Face,” he is describing a vision of the Face of God, an anthropomorphic entity “seated on the fiery Throne of Glory” (pp. 404-405).

Jacob’s Heavenly Counterpart

In Genesis 32, we have the account of Jacob wrestling with a “man” until he is blessed and given a new name, Israel. In Ladder of Jacob, the “man” is the angel, Sariel, Jacob’s angelic guide. Orlov explains that there is likely a link between the angel Sariel and the angel Uriel/Phanuel of other traditions (such as 2 Enoch), who serves as angelus interpres.  The name Phanuel is quite possibly related to the Peniel/Penuel mentioned in Gen 32:30-31. He cites Targum Neofiti to Gen. 32:25–31, which reads:

And Jacob was left alone; and the angel Sariel wrestled with him in the appearance of a man and he embraced him until the time the dawn arose. When he saw that he could not prevail against him, he touched the hollow of his thigh and the hollow of Jacob’s thigh became benumbed in his wrestling with him. And he said: “Let me go because the rise of the dawn has arrived, and because the time of the angels on high to praise has arrived, and I am a chief of those who praise”. And he said: “I will not let you go unless you bless me”. And he said to him: “What is your name?” And he said: “Jacob”. And he said: “Your name shall no longer be called Jacob but Israel, because you have claimed superiority with angels from before the Lord and with men and you have prevailed against them. And Jacob asked and said: “Tell me your name I pray”; and he said: “Why, now, do you ask my name?” And he blessed him there. And Jacob called the name of the place Peniel because: “I have seen angels from before the Lord face to face and my life has been spared”.

In Ladder of Jacob, Sariel/Phanuel does not wrestle with Jacob, but rather instructs him regarding the sacred secrets of Heaven. At the conclusion of this instruction, instead of simply being given the new name Israel, Jacob is introduced to his heavenly counterpart, the angel Israel.  Jacob, through the guidance of Sariel, is given the knowledge that he has a heavenly identity–that his celestial “self’ is truly a great luminous being who serves before the Face of God.

The imagery here is very similar to that of the Enoch tradition (1 Enoch 71 and 2 Enoch 22), where Enoch is taken up to Heaven by the angel Uriel, where he is transformed before the Throne of God into the powerful angel Metatron, with the titles (among others) Son of Man and Prince of the World. When Enoch returns to Earth, he tells his children that although they see him as the earthly, human Enoch, there is likewise an angelic Enoch that has stood in the Lord’s Presence (see p. 409).  The idea that a human can have a heavenly double appears to be an ancient Jewish belief that turns up in a number of documents.

As a note for LDS readers, it is very interesting to compare this idea to Joseph Smith’s teaching that the ancient patriarchs had a pre/post-mortal angelic identity–Adam=Michael, Noah=Gabriel, etc. In fact, every person on earth has a heavenly or spiritual identity. Doctrine and Covenants 107:54–55 is just one expression of this principle.

54 And the Lord appeared unto them, and they rose up and blessed Adam, and called him Michael, the prince, the archangel.
55 And the Lord administered comfort unto Adam, and said unto him: I have set thee to be at the head; a multitude of nations shall come of thee, and thou art a prince over them forever.

Engraved in the Throne of Glory

As if this weren’t enough, Orlov’s discoveries get even more spicy! Not only does Jacob find that he is a celestial reality in Heaven, but that his “image” is fixed or engraved on the Throne of Glory. Dr. Orlov cites a comparable tradition from the Targums (see p. 407). In Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Gen 28:12 the following description can be found:

He [Jacob] had a dream, and behold, a ladder was fixed in the earth with its top reaching toward the heavens … and on that day they (angels) ascended to the heavens on high, and said, Come and see Jacob the pious, whose image is fixed (engraved) in the Throne of Glory, and whom you have desired to see.

This, in itself, is an amazing idea to ponder. However, Orlov explains that there are further implications possible in this imagery.

Besides the tradition of “engraving” on the Throne, some Jewish materials point to an even more radical identification of Jacob’s image with Kavod. Jarl Fossum’s research demonstrates that in some traditions about Jacob’s image, his “image” or “likeness” is depicted not simply as engraved on the heavenly throne, but as seated upon the throne of glory. J. Fossum argues that this second tradition is original. Christopher Rowland proposed that Jacob’s image is “identical with the form of God on the throne of glory (Ezek. 1.26f.)” (p. 408).

In other words, when Jacob enters the Presence of God and looks at the Throne of Glory, instead of seeing the Lord, he sees himself sitting on the Throne! What an incredible tradition! I certainly don’t think that this was meant to be blasphemous in any way–to the contrary, I think it was meant to show God’s gift to man, his divine potential. This is the end result of deification/theosis. The pious individual has become one with the Glory of God.  As Dr. Orlov notes, Jacob seems to have become a servant of the Divine Face, and identified with it (see pp. 415-419).

I think this idea goes along well with what I presented in my last post, in the section about “throne-sharing.” The washing, anointing, naming, and crowning of the king (or high priest) resulted in his being identified with (or representing) Yahweh. We have the idea (seen in Rev. and elsewhere) of God-and-the-Lamb sitting upon the Throne of Glory. Looking at the grammar, it appears that this was one Figure sitting on the throne. Was it God or was it Christ? It doesn’t really matter, for the enthroned Christ is totally united with the Father and represents Him.  I quote again Margaret Barker’s insight into this principle:

In each case they are one, because in each case it is a human figure who has become divine…The Lamb is, therefore, a human being taken up to the throne and, as he is enthroned, he becomes divine, united with “him who sits upon the throne”. The Lamb is worshipped after he has stood in the midst of the throne (Rev 5:6). When Solomon was made king, there was an exactly similar sequence; it must have been the ancient temple ritual. Solomon sat on the throne of the LORD as king (1 Chron 29:23) (Barker, Temple Themes in Christian Worship, p. 91).

Although texts like Ladder of Jacob are obscure and somewhat ambiguous, I believe we can gain much from them that can give us background understanding for our modern beliefs, like faded pieces of the Gospel puzzle. There are some great principles that resemble the Plan of Salvation, our Divine Potential, and the teachings of the modern LDS Temple. I feel greatly indebted to Dr. Andrei Orlov for his excellent research on these ancient texts, of which I would hardly have any knowledge of through any other source.

We now look at the Temple, the place where Heaven is represented on Earth. Eusebius knew that Moses had built the Tabernacle as an imitation of the visions he had be given on Sinai (Exod 25:8, 40):

And Moses himself, having first been thought worthy to view the divine realities in secret, and the mysteries concerning the first and only Anointed High Priest of God, which were celebrated before him in his theophanies, is ordered to establish figures and symbols on earth of what he had seen in his mind in visions (Proof IV:15)(p. 83).

Later, the Temple built by Solomon would follow the same pattern. What went on in the Tabernacle and Temple was to be an imitation of what went on in Heaven. This is an interesting insight for LDS attenders of the modern Temples. Barker has some great insight on the relationship between the earthly and heavenly:

Yahweh was represented in the temple by the high priest.  The temple itself represented the whole creation, visible and invisible, the great hall being the material world and the holy of holies the invisible creation. Philo explained: “The highest, and in the truest sense the holy, temple of God is, as we must believe, the whole universe, having for its sanctuary the most sacred part of all existence, even heaven, for its votive ornaments the stars, and for its priests the angels (Special Laws, 1:66). Since the angels were priests in the temple of creation, the priests in the Jerusalem temple represented the angels…The high priest was the chief of the priests and also the chief of the angels, the LORD of the hosts: “For there are, as is evident, two temples of God: one of them this universe, in which there is also as High Priest His First-born, the divine Logos and the other the rational soul, whose Priest is the real man” (On Dreams1:215). The high priest was the only person permitted to enter the holy of holies, and so he was the link between the visible and invisible worlds, between earth and heaven (pp. 92-93).

The high priests and kings were anointed in ceremonies that involved the Temple in imitation of Christ’s anointing. Eusebius recalled:

Among the Hebrews [the high priests] were called Christs who long ago symbolically represented a copy of the first Christ (Proof IV.10).

 Philo also knew this tradition concerning the original Anointed One:

The [heavenly] High Priest is not a man but a Divine Logos…his father being God who is likewise Father of all, and his mother Wisdom, through whom the universe came into existence. Moreover, his head has been anointed with oil, and by this I mean that his ruling faculty is illumined with a brilliant light, in such wise that he is deemed worthy to “put on the garments” (On Flight 108-110).

 In the temple, the multi-colored veil represented the material creation. The same fabric was used for the outer vestment of the high priest, threaded through with gold (Exod 28:5-6). According to Barker, the high priest only wore this garment when he was in “the world”; when he was in heaven, the holy of holies, he wore a white linen robe in imitation of celestial beings. This was indicative of his two roles: divine and human (see p. 94).

The coloured vestment worn over the white linen indicated the angel robed in transformed matter: incarnation (p. 94).

In the Book of Revelation, John sees Jesus as a fiery high priestly figure, and Barker makes a connection between this description and the figure that Ezekiel saw atop the merkabah throne he saw.  According to Barker, it would seem that this is Christ’s usual mode of appearance, whether pre-mortal or post. He is wearing the vestments of the High Priest. She uses as a further example the Apocalypse of Abraham , a Jewish document believed to have been written towards the end of the first century AD. In this document, Abraham meets a Great Angel named Yahweh-el, who is described both as an angel and the True Prophet. This account is linked to Genesis 15, and we should probably understand that this angelic figure is meant to be Yahweh himself who met with Abraham. Again his appearance is that of a High Priest:

The text is not entirely clear, but it seems that the lower part of his body was like sapphire and his hair was white like snow. He wore the high priestly turban that looked like a rainbow (kidaris, Exod 39:28, Zech 3:5) and purple robes, and he carried a golden staff or sceptre. The heavenly figure had human form, and he came to consecrate and strengthen Abraham…Yahweh-el had been appointed as the guardian angel of Abraham and his descendants (Ap. Abr. 10:16), and he appeared as the High Priest…It was the Lord Yahweh who appeared to Abraham and became the high priestly angel in the Apocalypse of Abraham (pp. 96-97).

The Throne-Sharer

A couple of months ago, Dr. Bill Hamblin wrote a great post on his blog, Things Unutterable, about a model temple from biblical Moab, that demonstrates the synthronos, or dual throne.

 William Dever, archeologist, discussed the discovery of this model in Biblical Archaeology Review (34/2, Mar/Apr 2008). It is Dever’s opinion that the dual throne represented the joint rule of Yahweh and Asherah, God and Goddess, from the Temple. Although there is significant evidence for Asherah as an ancient Hebrew goddess, Dr. Hamblin did not agree that the dual throne was necessarily occupied by the divine Father and Mother. He notes that there are other possible combinations, including father (or mother) and son (or king or perhaps high priest as son).

I found an interesting picture on the internet that depicts a related scene:

I think this picture was supposed to depict an earthly representation of Father, Son and Holy Ghost in ancient Israel, but I think they possibly got the order wrong. It should probably be the King on the main throne, with the High Priest seated to his right. Anyways, this is an interesting depiction.  It is possibly based on Psalm 110:1, where, as Hamblin notes, the king is invited to sit down at the right hand of God. The high priest, however, should not be representing the Father.

The high priest did represent Yahweh (the Son) according to tradition. It would be correct to imagine the high priest as occupying the throne of or with God, as Yahweh the Great High Priest would share the throne of, and represent, God Most High.  We must note, however, that the Davidic king also represented Yahweh, as I explained in the first of this two-part post. I would argue that in ancient Israel, the King was likely more of a high priest than the Aaronic chief priest, but that argument will have to wait for another time. I cite again here, the remarkable verses from  1 Chron 29:23 and also 29:20:

23 Then Solomon sat on the throne of the Lord as king instead of David his father, and prospered; and all Israel obeyed him.

20 And David said to all the congregation, Now bless the Lord your God. And all the congregation blessed the Lord God of their fathers, and bowed down their heads, and worshipped the Lord, and the king. 

So the image becomes one of the king sitting on the throne of/with Yahweh, which we can imagine is in imitation of Yahweh sitting on the throne of/with the Father.  Hamblin gives some great insight into how Jews and Christians saw the shared throne:

Later Jews likewise saw synthronos between God and his son, king, angel, or deified human (Dan 7:9–14), most prominently describing Christ (Mt 26:64; Mk 14:62; Acts 7:55–56; Heb 1:3, 13; 8:1, 12:2).  Metatron (the deified Enoch) is likewise a Jewish synthronos figure (3 Enoch).  Given this biblical context, Israelite synthronos is just as likely to be father-son/king as father-mother. 

Joseph Smith described his modern vision of the Heavenly Throne in an amazingly similar manner:

(I saw) Also the blazing throne of God, whereon was seated the Father and the Son.  

Margaret Barker sees this throne-sharing as a key to understanding Christian “monotheism” (see pp. 89-92). She explains that “there can be no division within the divine state” (p. 89). In Heaven, there exists a perfect divine unity–it is only on Earth that we are separate. This idea is expressed in Jesus’ intercessory prayer in John 17, where Jesus prays:

That they may be one even as we are one, I in them and Thou in me, so that they may become perfectly One, so that the world may know that Thou hast sent me… 

She notes the use in the book of Revelation of a singular verb for the two Gods–the pairing of God-and-the-Lamb or God-and-the-Christ (Rev 5:13; 7:10-11; 11:15; 20:6). In these scriptures it refers to two figures, God and Christ, but then seems to consider them as one, applying a singular verb.  For example the throne of God and the Lamb is seen (in Rev 22:3-4), and his servants shall worship him and see his face. But whose throne is it? God’s or the Lamb’s? Who will be worshipped, and whose face will be seen? According to Barker, this is not an issue.

In each case they are one, because in each case it is a human figure who has become divine…The Lamb is, therefore, a human being taken up to the throne and, as he is enthroned, he becomes divine, united with “him who sits upon the throne”. The Lamb is worshipped after he has stood in the midst of the throne (Rev 5:6). When Solomon was made king, there was an exactly similar sequence; it must have been the ancient temple ritual. Solomon sat on the throne of the LORD as king (1 Chron 29:23)…At his enthronement, the human king became the LORD.  Whether this was imagined as the incarnation of the LORD, or as the adoption of the king as the divine son is not known (p. 91).

Theosis (deification or becoming divine), according to Barker, is an essential part of understanding the temple worship of both ancient Israel and the early Christians. It is also essential to understanding how Christians could believe in a God who became human and a human who became God. This was standard fare in the religion of the First Temple.  In conclusion, I quote Barker:

Returned to its temple context, and interpreted within temple norms, early Christian worship was binitarian (they worshipped both Father and Son) because all temple worship was binitarian. The human king was the presence or face of the LORD, Immanuel, and so Christain devotion to Jesus the Anointed One as Yahweh the LORD was no innovation. Far from there being no parallel to this Clhristian practice in Hebrew tradition, it was in fact the restoration of the original temple cult.